OLV Online Grammar Lab

At OLV, we believe that learning to write well is more important than ever. These modules help students build a strong foundation in grammar and clear expression. Students can work through them sequentially, or they can revisit specific skills in response to feedback on their writing assignments.

Choose the skill you'd like to practice...

Module 01 · About 20–25 minutes

Sentence Foundations

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Your goal: Find the building blocks of a sentence so you can explain how they work together.

A subject tells who or what the clause is about. A verb expresses an action or a state of being. In “The young scholar reads carefully,” the simple subject is “scholar,” and the verb is “reads.” A verb can contain several words: “has been reading.”

A phrase is a group of words that functions as a unit without its own subject–verb pairing, such as “in the library.” A clause contains a subject and a verb. An independent clause expresses a complete thought; a dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence.

Independent: The scholar reads.
Dependent: Although the scholar reads carefully.
Combined: Although the scholar reads carefully, she sometimes needs to reread.

Words such as because, although, when, and if can introduce dependent clauses. In a command such as “Read carefully,” the subject “you” is understood.

Practice

  1. Find the simple subject and verb: “The books on the table belong to Marcus.”
  2. Classify “after the lesson” as a phrase or clause.
  3. Classify “because the lesson ended” as independent or dependent.
  4. Identify the complete subject and verb phrase: “The youngest member of the team has been practicing.”
  5. Is “while the musicians rehearsed” a phrase, an independent clause, or a dependent clause? Explain.
  6. Identify the understood subject and the verb: “Close the window.”
  7. Identify the simple subject and verb: “Beyond the gate stood an ancient oak.”
  8. Find the complete subject: “The three students beside the window were whispering.”
  9. Identify the verb phrase: “Our class will have finished the novel by Friday.”
  10. Classify “under the wooden bridge” as a phrase or clause.
  11. Classify “the lantern flickered” as an independent or dependent clause.
  12. Identify the clauses: “Although the path was steep, the hikers continued.”
Check answers and explanations

1. “Books” is the simple subject; “belong” is the verb. “On the table” describes the books.
2. Phrase: it has no subject–verb pairing.
3. Dependent clause: “lesson” is the subject and “ended” is the verb, but “because” leaves the thought incomplete.

4. The complete subject is “The youngest member of the team”; the verb phrase is “has been practicing.” The simple subject is “member.”

5. It is a dependent clause. “Musicians” is the subject and “rehearsed” is the verb, but “while” makes the clause dependent.

6. The understood subject is “you”; the verb is “Close.” Commands can be complete sentences.

7. Subject: “oak”; verb: “stood.” A subject can follow its verb.

8. “The three students beside the window” is the complete subject; “students” is the simple subject.

9. “Will have finished” is the verb phrase. The helping verbs belong with the main verb.

10. Phrase: it has no subject–verb pairing.

11. Independent: it contains subject “lantern,” verb “flickered,” and a complete thought.

12. “Although the path was steep” is dependent; “the hikers continued” is independent.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. In “When the bell rings, the students leave,” identify both clauses and decide which can stand alone.

  2. In “The choir sang after the audience arrived,” identify both clauses, their subjects and verbs, and which clause is independent.

  3. In “Before the guests arrived, we had arranged the chairs,” identify each subject and complete verb phrase.

  4. Write one phrase, one dependent clause, and one independent clause about a library. Label each.

Check final answers

  1. “When the bell rings” is dependent. “The students leave” is independent. Their subjects are “bell” and “students”; their verbs are “rings” and “leave.”

  2. “The choir sang” is independent: subject “choir,” verb “sang.” “After the audience arrived” is dependent: subject “audience,” verb “arrived.” The main clause can stand alone.

  3. Dependent clause: subject “guests,” verb “arrived.” Independent clause: subject “we,” verb phrase “had arranged.”

  4. One possible set: “beside the library” (phrase); “because the library was closed” (dependent clause); “We returned the books” (independent clause). Your content may differ, but the structures should match.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

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Module 02 · About 20 minutes

Sentence Fragments

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Your goal: Distinguish a complete sentence from an incomplete thought.

A complete sentence needs a subject, a verb, and a complete thought. A dependent clause may contain a subject and a verb but still leave the reader waiting for more.

Fragment: Because the discussion was interesting.
Complete: Because the discussion was interesting, we stayed after class.
Fragment: The student with the blue notebook.
Complete: The student with the blue notebook asked a question.

A command can be complete even when its subject is unstated: “Read the passage.” The understood subject is “you.”

Practice

Which are fragments? Repair any that you find.

  1. Although the journey was long.
  2. The travelers reached the village.
  3. Carrying a stack of books.
  4. Identify and repair the fragment: “The storm ended. Leaving branches across the road.”
  5. Is “Please bring your book” complete? Explain.
  6. Repair: “The essay that we discussed yesterday.”
  7. Identify and repair the fragment: “The class listened carefully. While the visitor explained the experiment.”
  8. Is “Wait!” a complete sentence? Explain.
  9. Repair: “Several reasons for the delay.”
  10. Repair: “Which surprised the audience.”
  11. Is “The door opened” complete? Explain.
  12. Repair: “Having completed the outline.”
Check answers

1. Fragment: “Although the journey was long, we enjoyed it.” The dependent clause needs a complete main clause.

2. Complete: “The travelers” is the subject, and “reached” is the verb.

3. Fragment: “Maria was carrying a stack of books.” The original phrase does not name a subject or supply a finite verb.

4. “Leaving branches across the road” is a fragment. Combine it with the main clause: “The storm ended, leaving branches across the road.”

5. Yes. It is a command with understood subject “you” and verb “bring.” “Please” does not change that structure.

6. “The essay that we discussed yesterday presents a strong argument.” The original noun phrase needs a main predicate; the clause “that we discussed yesterday” only describes the essay.

7. Combine them: “The class listened carefully while the visitor explained the experiment.” The “while” clause cannot stand alone here.

8. Yes. It is a command with understood subject “you” and verb “wait.”

9. “Several reasons for the delay became clear.” The noun phrase needs a main verb and predicate.

10. One possibility: “The ending surprised the audience.” The original relative clause needs a main clause or a revised structure.

11. Yes. “Door” is the subject, “opened” is the verb, and the thought is complete.

12. “Having completed the outline, Elena began her draft.” The introductory phrase needs a main clause.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Write a complete sentence beginning with “Because.” Then underline the main clause that can stand alone.

  2. Turn “Even though the evidence was strong” into a complete sentence, then identify the independent clause you added.

  3. Combine into one complete sentence: “The garden was quiet. Except for the birds near the fountain.”

  4. Write a complete sentence using “unless,” then identify its independent clause.

Check final answers

  1. One possible answer: “Because the question was difficult, we discussed it together.” Underline “we discussed it together”; that is the independent clause. Your sentence may differ, but it needs a complete main clause.

  2. “Even though the evidence was strong, the jury remained uncertain.” The independent clause is “the jury remained uncertain.” Other main clauses are possible.

  3. “The garden was quiet except for the birds near the fountain.” The exception phrase attaches to the main clause.

  4. Example: “We will practice outdoors unless it rains.” “We will practice outdoors” is independent; “unless it rains” is dependent.

Back to skills

Module 03 · About 20–25 minutes

Capitalization & Titles

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Your goal: Use capitals for the right reasons and distinguish the titles of long and short works.

Capitalize the first word of a sentence, the pronoun “I,” and proper nouns: names of particular people, places, organizations, languages, days, months, and holidays. Ordinary school subjects and seasons usually stay lowercase: “history in the fall,” but “English on Monday.” An official course title may use capitals: “World History II.”

Use capitals for a title before a name, such as “Dr. Ortiz.” An ordinary description stays lowercase: “our principal.” Follow your teacher’s style guide for special cases.

In title case, capitalize the first and last words and major words. Articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the,” short coordinating conjunctions such as “and,” and prepositions such as “in” usually stay lowercase within a title. For an MLA-style paper, italicize titles of books and other long works; put titles of short poems, articles, and individual chapters in quotation marks. When writing by hand, you may underline a book title to indicate italics.

Capitalization: On Friday, Nora studied English and history.
Book: We read A Christmas Carol.
Poem: We discussed “Invictus.”
Invented title in title case: The Light in the Forest

Practice

  1. Correct the capitals: “after lunch, we studied english and history.”
  2. Correct: “Nora will present on friday in october.”
  3. Correct: “our principal, dr. ortiz, welcomed the visitors.”
  4. Choose capitals as needed: “I am taking the official course world history II next semester.”
  5. Correct: “we studied french and latin during the fall.”
  6. Put this invented book title in title case: “the light in the forest.”
  7. Format the book title correctly: We read A Christmas Carol.
  8. Format the short poem title correctly: We discussed Invictus.
  9. An invented chapter is titled “The Journey Begins.” Should its title be italicized or placed in quotation marks?
  10. Correct the proper name and ordinary noun: “our club visited the denver art museum.”
  11. Correct: “in the winter, i plan to read more novels.”
  12. Explain why “English” is capitalized in “We studied English and history,” while “history” is lowercase.
Check answers and explanations

1. “After lunch, we studied English and history.” Capitalize the sentence opening and the language name, but not the ordinary subject history.

2. “Nora will present on Friday in October.” Days and months are proper names.

3. “Our principal, Dr. Ortiz, welcomed the visitors.” Capitalize the sentence opening, the title Dr., and the name Ortiz. The ordinary description principal remains lowercase.

4. “I am taking the official course World History II next semester.” The prompt identifies an official course title. An ordinary reference to history class would not require those capitals.

5. “We studied French and Latin during the fall.” Language names are capitalized; the season is lowercase in an ordinary reference.

6. The Light in the Forest. Capitalize the first and last words and the major nouns. The internal preposition in and article the stay lowercase.

7. We read A Christmas Carol. Italicize a book title in a typed paper; underline it when writing by hand.

8. We discussed “Invictus.” A short poem title takes quotation marks.

9. Quotation marks: “The Journey Begins.” An individual chapter is a shorter work within a book.

10. “Our club visited the Denver Art Museum.” The specific museum’s name is a proper noun. Club is an ordinary noun here.

11. “In the winter, I plan to read more novels.” Capitalize the sentence opening and I; winter remains lowercase.

12. English names a language and is capitalized. History is an ordinary school subject in this sentence, rather than an official course title.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Write a sentence naming one language and one ordinary school subject. Use capitals correctly.

  2. Write a sentence naming the book A Christmas Carol and the short poem Invictus. Show the correct title formatting.

  3. Correct the capitals: “on monday in september, i will begin world history II.” Assume World History II is the official course title.

  4. Give an invented book a title containing “the,” “and,” and “in.” Write it in title case and format it as a book title.

Check final answers

  1. Example: “We studied Latin and history.” The language name is capitalized; the ordinary subject history is lowercase.

  2. Example: We read A Christmas Carol and discussed “Invictus.” Italicize the book title and place the short poem title in quotation marks. On paper, underlining can represent the italics.

  3. “On Monday in September, I will begin World History II.” Capitalize the sentence opening, day, month, I, and the official course title.

  4. One possible invented title is The Lantern and the Map in the Attic. The first and last words and major nouns are capitalized; the internal and, the, and in are lowercase.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

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Module 04 · About 20–25 minutes

Commonly Confused Words

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Your goal: Use meaning and sentence structure to choose between commonly confused words.

  • Their shows possession; there indicates a place or introduces a statement; they're means “they are.”
  • Your shows possession; you're means “you are.”
  • Than compares; then refers to time or a next step.
  • Affect is usually a verb meaning influence; effect is usually a noun meaning result. These are common uses, not the only possible meanings.
They're putting their books over there.
You're responsible for your draft.
The revision is clearer than the original; then we checked the citations.
The feedback affected the essay. Its effect was noticeable.

Practice

  1. (Their / There / They're) ready to present (their / there / they're) argument.
  2. (Your / You're) introduction is stronger (than / then) the first version.
  3. How did the weather (affect / effect) the game? What was its (affect / effect)?
  4. (There / Their / They’re) is a note beside (your / you’re) book.
  5. The second draft is clearer (than / then) the first; (than / then) we will check the sources.
  6. The new schedule may (affect / effect) rehearsal. Its main (affect / effect) will be a later start.
  7. Choose: “(They’re / Their / There) waiting beside (they’re / their / there) classroom.”
  8. Choose: “Put the notes over (their / there), please.”
  9. Choose: “(Your / You’re) ready to explain (your / you’re) answer.”
  10. Choose: “The first explanation is shorter (than / then) the second.”
  11. Choose: “Read the question first; (than / then) write a response.”
  12. Choose: “The change had an immediate (affect / effect) on attendance.”
Check answers and explanations

1. They're; their: “They are” ready; the argument belongs to them.
2. Your; than: Possession and comparison.
3. affect; effect: The first means influence; the second means result.

4. “There” and “your.” “There is” introduces a statement; “your” shows possession.

5. “Than” and “then.” The first word compares drafts; the second signals the next step.

6. “Affect” and “effect.” Here “affect” is the verb meaning influence, and “effect” is the noun meaning result.

7. “They’re” and “their.” Expand the first to “They are”; the second shows possession.

8. “There.” It indicates a place.

9. “You’re” and “your.” The first means “you are”; the second shows possession.

10. “Than.” The sentence compares two explanations.

11. “Then.” It signals the next step rather than a comparison.

12. “Effect.” The word functions here as a noun meaning result.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Choose: “First check (your / you're) evidence; (than / then) revise the conclusion.”

  2. Choose all four words: “(They’re / Their) comparing (there / their) notes before moving (there / they’re), and (your / you’re) welcome to join them.”

  3. Choose: “(Their / They’re) revising (their / there) essay; (than / then) they will explain how the feedback (affected / effected) it.”

  4. Write one sentence using “affect” as a verb and one using “effect” as a noun.

Check final answers

  1. “First check your evidence; then revise the conclusion.” “Your” shows possession; “then” signals the next step.

  2. “They’re comparing their notes before moving there, and you’re welcome to join them.” The contractions mean “they are” and “you are”; “their” shows possession; “there” indicates a place.

  3. “They’re revising their essay; then they will explain how the feedback affected it.” The choices express “they are,” possession, sequence, and influence.

  4. Examples: “Practice can affect confidence.” “The effect of practice was clear.” “Affect” means influence; “effect” names a result in these examples.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

Back to skills

Module 05 · About 20–25 minutes

Apostrophes & Possessives

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Your goal: Use apostrophes for ownership and missing letters, not ordinary plurals.

  • Singular possession: the student's notebook; James's essay (follow your assigned style for names ending in s).
  • Plural ending in s: the students' notebooks.
  • Irregular plural: the children's books.
  • Contraction: “it's” means “it is” or “it has”; “who's” means “who is” or “who has.”
Plural: The students arrived.
One owner: The student's essay was thoughtful.
Several owners: The students' essays were thoughtful.

The possessive forms its, whose, yours, hers, ours, and theirs have no apostrophe. Test a contraction by expanding it: “It's losing its cover” becomes “It is losing its cover.”

Practice

  1. One teacher owns the desk: the (teacher's / teachers') desk.
  2. Several students own the projects: the (student's / students') projects.
  3. (Its / It's) clear that the book has lost (its / it's) cover.
  4. Several children own the coats: the (childrens / children’s / childrens’) coats.
  5. Expand the contraction in “Who’s finished the revision?”
  6. Two teachers share one classroom: choose “the teacher’s classroom” or “the teachers’ classroom.”
  7. One actor owns the script: the (actors / actor’s / actors’) script.
  8. Several actors own the scripts: the (actor’s / actors’ / actors) scripts.
  9. Several women own the coats: the (womens’ / women’s) coats.
  10. Choose: “(Its / It’s) been a long day.”
  11. Correct any apostrophe error: “The bicycle is her’s.”
  12. Correct the ordinary plural: “Three student’s joined the club.”
Check answers and explanations

1. teacher's: One owner takes apostrophe + s.
2. students': The plural already ends in s, so add the apostrophe after it.
3. It's; its: The first means “It is”; the second shows possession.

4. “Children’s.” The irregular plural “children” does not end in s, so add apostrophe + s.

5. “Who has finished the revision?” Here “who’s” stands for “who has,” not “who is.”

6. “The teachers’ classroom.” The plural “teachers” ends in s, so its possessive adds an apostrophe after the s.

7. “Actor’s.” Singular possession takes apostrophe + s.

8. “Actors’.” Add an apostrophe after the s of the regular plural.

9. “Women’s.” The irregular plural does not end in s, so add apostrophe + s.

10. “It’s.” Here the contraction means “it has.”

11. “The bicycle is hers.” The possessive pronoun “hers” takes no apostrophe.

12. “Three students joined the club.” No ownership or contraction is involved, so no apostrophe is needed.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Choose: “(Whose / Who's) notebook is this?” and “(Whose / Who's) leading the discussion?”

  2. Correct “The dogs collar is blue, and its missing it’s tag.” Assume one dog.

  3. Correct “The childrens books are on the teachers desks.” Assume several children and several teachers.

  4. Write one sentence using “whose” and another using “who’s.” Expand the contraction to check your second sentence.

Check final answers

  1. “Whose notebook is this?” asks about possession. “Who's leading the discussion?” means “Who is leading the discussion?”

  2. “The dog’s collar is blue, and it’s missing its tag.” “Dog’s” shows one owner; “it’s” means “it is”; “its” is possessive.

  3. “The children’s books are on the teachers’ desks.” Irregular plural “children” takes apostrophe + s; regular plural “teachers” takes the apostrophe after s.

  4. Examples: “Whose pencil is this?” and “Who’s bringing the notebooks?” The second expands to “Who is bringing the notebooks?” “Whose” shows possession.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

Back to skills

Module 06 · About 20 minutes

Subject–Verb Agreement

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Your goal: Find the subject and choose a verb that agrees with it.

In the present tense, a singular third-person subject usually takes a verb ending in -s: “The student reads.” A plural subject usually does not: “The students read.” Forms of “be” vary: “She is”; “they are.”

The collection of poems is on the shelf.
The subject is “collection,” not “poems.” Ignore the intervening phrase when choosing the verb.

Subjects joined by “and” usually take a plural verb. “Each,” “everyone,” and “everybody” take singular verbs.

Practice

  1. The list of assignments (is / are) on the board.
  2. Each of the students (has / have) a notebook.
  3. Anna and James (reads / read) the passage.
  4. Neither of the answers (is / are) correct.
  5. There (is / are) three reasons for the decision.
  6. The author, along with two editors, (reviews / review) the draft.
  7. The bouquet of flowers (was / were) on the desk.
  8. Everyone in the two classes (needs / need) a copy.
  9. The musicians and the conductor (is / are) ready.
  10. Here (is / are) the missing pages.
  11. Neither the librarian nor the teachers (has / have) the key.
  12. Neither the teachers nor the librarian (has / have) the key.
Check answers

1. is: The subject “list” is singular.
2. has: The subject “Each” is singular.
3. read: Two people joined by “and” form a plural subject.

4. “Is.” “Neither” is the singular subject in this sentence; “of the answers” does not make it plural.

5. “Are.” The subject is plural “three reasons,” which follows the verb.

6. “Reviews.” The subject “author” is singular. “Along with two editors” is an added phrase, not a compound subject joined by “and.”

7. “Was.” Singular “bouquet,” not plural “flowers,” controls the verb.

8. “Needs.” “Everyone” is singular despite the plural noun in the intervening phrase.

9. “Are.” Two distinct subjects joined by “and” take a plural verb.

10. “Are.” The plural subject “pages” follows the verb.

11. “Have.” With these subjects joined by “neither…nor,” the verb agrees with the nearer subject, plural “teachers.”

12. “Has.” The nearer subject is singular “librarian.” If the construction feels awkward, revise it.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Correct “The illustrations in the book makes the story vivid.”

  2. Correct “One of the paintings in the galleries need a new frame,” and identify the subject.

  3. Correct “The box of maps and photographs belong in the cabinet,” and explain the agreement.

  4. Write one sentence using “each” as a singular subject and one using two subjects joined by “and.”

Check final answers

  1. “The illustrations in the book make the story vivid.” The plural subject is “illustrations.”

  2. “One of the paintings in the galleries needs a new frame.” The subject is singular “One”; the intervening plural nouns do not control the verb.

  3. “The box of maps and photographs belongs in the cabinet.” The simple subject is singular “box.”

  4. Examples: “Each of the speakers has a microphone.” “The speaker and the moderator have microphones.” The first subject is singular; the second is plural.

Back to skills

Module 07 · About 20–25 minutes

Verb Tense Consistency

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Your goal: Maintain a clear time frame and change tense only when meaning requires it.

Use a consistent tense for events happening in the same time frame. “Yesterday we entered the library and found our books” stays in the past. “Yesterday we enter the library and found our books” shifts without a reason.

A tense change can be necessary: “Today I understand the argument that puzzled me yesterday.” The two time frames justify different tenses.

Literary present: In the story, the narrator discovers a secret and struggles to keep it.
Historical past: The author published the novel in 1925.

In literary analysis, normally use present tense for what characters do and what a text says. Use past tense for historical events, and follow your teacher's assignment directions. Do not alter a quotation merely to make its tense match yours.

Practice

  1. Yesterday we (discuss / discussed) the poem and wrote a response.
  2. Repair this literary analysis: “The narrator describes the setting and revealed his fear.”
  3. Is this shift justified? “I now know why the experiment failed last week.”
  4. Repair the unintentional shift: “Last night I outlined my argument and choose two examples.”
  5. Choose for literary analysis: “In the poem, the speaker (remembers / remembered) a childhood home and (questions / questioned) what has changed.”
  6. Is the shift justified? “The author wrote the novel decades ago, but its narrator speaks directly to today’s readers.” Explain.
  7. Repair: “Last Saturday we visit the museum and studied the sculptures.”
  8. Use literary present: “The character entered the room and discovers the letter.”
  9. Is this shift justified? “I read the novel last summer, and I still remember its ending.”
  10. Repair: “Tomorrow we will present the evidence and answered questions.”
  11. Choose: “By the time the guests arrived, we (had set / will set) the table.”
  12. Should you change a quotation’s past-tense verb to present tense merely to match your literary-analysis sentence? Explain.
Check answers and explanations

1. discussed: “Yesterday” and “wrote” establish the past.
2. “The narrator describes the setting and reveals his fear.” Both actions describe the text in literary present.
3. Yes. “Know” refers to now; “failed” refers to last week.

4. “Last night I outlined my argument and chose two examples.” Both verbs refer to the same past time.

5. “Remembers” and “questions.” Literary present consistently describes what the poem’s speaker does.

6. Yes. “Wrote” refers to a historical act; “speaks” describes how the narrator functions in the text.

7. “Last Saturday we visited the museum and studied the sculptures.” Both actions share a past time frame.

8. “The character enters the room and discovers the letter.” Both actions describe what happens in the text.

9. Yes. “Read” refers to a past event; “remember” refers to the present.

10. “Tomorrow we will present the evidence and answer questions.” The verbs share the helping verb “will.”

11. “Had set.” The table-setting occurred before another past event.

12. No. Preserve quoted wording. Revise your surrounding sentence or follow the assigned style for any clearly marked alteration.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Revise “In the play, the messenger arrives and warned the king.”

  2. Revise “Yesterday our class debates the character’s choice and wrote a response.” Then explain the time frame.

  3. Revise “In the story, the narrator recalls a journey and explained why it mattered” using literary present.

  4. Write a sentence with one present event and one clearly identified past event. Explain why the tense shift is necessary.

Check final answers

  1. “In the play, the messenger arrives and warns the king.” Both verbs now use literary present.

  2. “Yesterday our class debated the character’s choice and wrote a response.” Both class activities occurred in the past. The fact that the topic is literature does not make yesterday’s classroom events present tense.

  3. “In the story, the narrator recalls a journey and explains why it mattered.” “Recalls” and “explains” describe the text; “mattered” can refer to the earlier journey in the narrator’s recollection.

  4. Example: “Today I understand the problem that confused me yesterday.” “Understand” describes now; “confused” describes yesterday. The shift distinguishes the times.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

Back to skills

Module 08 · About 20–25 minutes

Pronoun Case: I or Me?

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Your goal: Choose a pronoun based on its job in the sentence, including when it appears beside another person’s name.

A pronoun’s case reflects its job. Subject forms such as “I,” “he,” “she,” and “we” act as subjects. Object forms such as “me,” “him,” “her,” and “us” receive an action or follow a preposition. Possessive forms show ownership: “my notebook,” “his notes,” “her draft,” or “The notebook is mine.”

Adding another person’s name does not change the pronoun’s job. Temporarily remove the other person to test the choice: “Marcus and I presented” becomes “I presented.” “The teacher helped Marcus and me” becomes “The teacher helped me.” Put the other person first in a polite written list.

Use “who” as a subject and “whom” as an object in formal writing. Test the role with “he” or “him”: “Who called?” → “He called”; “Whom did you call?” → “You called him.” A reflexive pronoun such as “myself” refers back to the subject (“I reminded myself”) or adds emphasis (“I checked it myself”). Do not use it merely as a more formal substitute for “I” or “me.”

Subject: Elena and I revised the draft.
Object of a verb: The teacher thanked Elena and me.
Object of a preposition: The message was for Elena and me.
Possessive: This notebook is mine.

Practice

  1. Choose: “Marcus and (I / me) presented the project.”
  2. Choose: “The teacher helped Marcus and (I / me).”
  3. Choose: “The invitation was addressed to Elena and (I / me).”
  4. Choose: “(She / Her) and James organized the notes.”
  5. Choose: “The coach congratulated James and (she / her).”
  6. Choose: “The librarian spoke with Nora and (we / us).”
  7. Choose: “This folder is (her / hers).”
  8. Choose: “That notebook is (my / mine).”
  9. Correct: “Please send the outline to Elena and myself.” The writer is asking someone else to send it.
  10. Choose and explain: “I reminded (me / myself) to check the source.”
  11. Choose for formal writing: “(Who / Whom) did the committee invite?”
  12. Choose: “(Who / Whom) will lead the discussion?”
Check answers and explanations

1. “I.” Marcus and I is the subject. The test sentence is “I presented.”

2. “Me.” The teacher helped me; the pronoun receives the action.

3. “Me.” The pronoun follows the preposition to. Test: “addressed to me.”

4. “She.” The pronoun is part of the subject: “She organized the notes.”

5. “Her.” The coach congratulated her. The pronoun receives the action.

6. “Us.” The pronoun follows the preposition with. Test: “spoke with us.”

7. “Hers.” Use the independent possessive form when no noun follows: “This folder is hers.” Compare “her folder.”

8. “Mine.” Use the independent possessive form: “That notebook is mine.” Compare “my notebook.”

9. “Please send the outline to Elena and me.” The pronoun follows to; myself is not a more formal replacement for me.

10. “Myself.” The subject I and the receiver refer to the same person. The reflexive form points back to the subject.

11. “Whom.” The committee invited him, so the pronoun is the object of invited. Whom is the formal object form.

12. “Who.” He will lead the discussion, so the pronoun is the subject of will lead.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Write one sentence with a name plus “I” as the subject and another with the same name plus “me” as an object.

  2. Correct: “The discussion between Marcus and I helped we understand the poem.”

  3. Choose who or whom for each blank: “___ recommended the book?” and “To ___ should I return it?”

  4. Correct: “Elena and me revised the conclusion, and the teacher thanked Elena and I.” Explain both choices.

Check final answers

  1. Examples: “Nora and I organized the project.” “The teacher thanked Nora and me.” The first pronoun is part of the subject; the second receives the action.

  2. “The discussion between Marcus and me helped us understand the poem.” Me follows the preposition between; us receives the action of helped.

  3. “Who recommended the book?” and “To whom should I return it?” Who is the subject; whom is the object of to.

  4. “Elena and I revised the conclusion, and the teacher thanked Elena and me.” I is part of the first subject. Me is part of the object of thanked.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

Back to skills

Module 09 · About 20–25 minutes

Pronoun Agreement & Clarity

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Your goal: Choose pronouns that fit their antecedents and make references clear.

An antecedent is the noun or noun phrase a pronoun refers to. In “The students brought their books,” “students” is the antecedent of “their.” Match pronouns to their intended referents in number and person.

Unclear: When Anna spoke to Emma, she smiled.
Clear: Anna smiled as she spoke to Emma.
Also clear, with a different meaning: Emma smiled when Anna spoke to her.

Replace vague “this,” “that,” or “it” with a specific noun when needed: “This revision improves the argument.” Keep your point of view consistent: avoid shifting from “a student” to “you” unintentionally.

Practice

  1. The runners tied (her / their) shoes.
  2. Clarify who needs revision: “The teacher discussed the essay with the student because it needed revision.”
  3. Make “When Leo met Peter, he was nervous” unambiguous, with Leo nervous.
  4. Clarify the referent: “The committee rejected the proposal after discussing the schedule. This disappointed the students.”
  5. Keep the point of view consistent: “If students revise carefully, you can improve your essays.”
  6. Choose and explain: “Writers should check (their / its) citations.”
  7. Choose: “The committee members brought (his / their) notes.”
  8. Clarify who won: “When Caleb called Noah, he announced his victory.” Assume Noah won.
  9. Keep the person consistent: “When a reader reaches the final chapter, you understand the mystery.”
  10. Clarify “The team changed its schedule and moved its rehearsals. This confused us.” State that the new rehearsal location caused the confusion.
  11. Choose: “Participants may submit (their / its) responses.” Explain.
  12. Clarify “The folder was beside the notebook, but it was missing a label.” Assume the folder needs a label.
Check answers and explanations

1. their: It refers to plural “runners.”
2. “Because the essay needed revision, the teacher discussed it with the student.” Naming the essay removes ambiguity.
3. “Leo was nervous when he met Peter.” The main clause identifies the nervous person.

4. One clear revision is “The committee’s rejection of the proposal disappointed the students.” It names the event instead of relying on vague “This.” If a different event disappointed them, name that event.

5. “If students revise carefully, they can improve their essays.” The sentence consistently refers to students in the third person.

6. “Their.” The antecedent “writers” is plural, so it takes the plural possessive pronoun “their.”

7. “Their.” The antecedent “members” is plural.

8. “Caleb called Noah to congratulate Noah on winning.” Naming the winner removes competing possible antecedents.

9. “When readers reach the final chapter, they understand the mystery.” The revision consistently uses third-person plural.

10. “The team’s new rehearsal location confused us.” The noun phrase identifies the exact cause.

11. “Their.” The antecedent “participants” is plural, so “their” agrees with it.

12. “The unlabeled folder was beside the notebook.” Naming the item or moving the description removes the vague reference.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Clarify “The class revised the introduction and the conclusion. This made it stronger.”

  2. Rewrite “When Sofia lent Julia her notes, she was grateful” so that Sofia owns the notes and Julia feels grateful.

  3. Revise “When Maya returned Clara’s essay, she thanked her” so that Clara is thanking Maya for helpful comments.

  4. Write two linked sentences about a group project. Use a plural antecedent and a clear pronoun referring to it.

Check final answers

  1. “Revising the introduction and conclusion strengthened the essay.” The revision states exactly what changed and what improved.

  2. “Julia was grateful when Sofia lent her the notes Sofia had taken.” Naming the owner and the grateful person makes both references clear.

  3. “Clara thanked Maya for the helpful comments when Maya returned Clara’s essay.” The revision names both roles explicitly.

  4. Example: “The researchers compared their findings. They then revised the report.” “They” clearly refers to “researchers,” and the plural forms agree.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

Back to skills

Module 10 · About 30 minutes

Run-ons & Comma Splices

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Your goal: Recognize two independent clauses and connect them correctly.

Learn the rule

An independent clause has a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. A fused sentence joins two independent clauses without appropriate punctuation. A comma splice joins them with only a comma. Sentence length does not determine whether a sentence is a run-on.

Fused: The bell rang the students packed their books.
Comma splice: The bell rang, the students packed their books.

Both parts can stand alone: “The bell rang.” “The students packed their books.” Use one of these repairs:

  • A period: The bell rang. The students packed their books.
  • A semicolon: The bell rang; the students packed their books.
  • A comma and a coordinating conjunction: The bell rang, so the students packed their books. The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
  • Subordination: When the bell rang, the students packed their books.

Watch out: “However” does not work like “but.” Write: “The task was difficult; however, we finished it.”

Practice before revealing the answers

  1. The library was closing, we borrowed the books.
  2. Lucia finished the novel she wanted to discuss its ending.
  3. The choir rehearsed and performed at the concert.
  4. Repair: “The evidence was convincing, however, the conclusion was unclear.”
  5. Is this a run-on? “Although the rehearsal ended late, the musicians packed their instruments and walked home.” Explain.
  6. Repair: “You may revise the introduction you may begin the conclusion instead.” Show the choice between the two options.
  7. Repair: “The forecast predicted snow we brought warm coats.”
  8. Repair: “The orchestra was ready, the conductor raised her baton.”
  9. Is this correct? “The room was small but comfortable.” Explain.
  10. Repair: “I wanted to volunteer, nevertheless, I had another commitment.”
  11. Is this correct? “Because the bridge was closed, we took another route.” Explain.
  12. Repair: “We could meet on Tuesday, or we could meet on Thursday, either day works.”
Check your answers and explanations

1. Comma splice. One repair: “The library was closing, so we borrowed the books.” Both clauses are complete; “so” explains the result.

2. Fused sentence. One repair: “Lucia finished the novel; she wanted to discuss its ending.” A period also works.

3. Correct as written. “Performed at the concert” shares the subject “The choir”; it is not a separate independent clause. No comma is needed before “and.”

4. “The evidence was convincing; however, the conclusion was unclear.” A semicolon joins the independent clauses; a comma follows “however.” A period before “However” also works.

5. It is correct. The introductory dependent clause is followed by a comma. The main clause has one subject, “musicians,” with two coordinated verb phrases. Length alone does not make a sentence a run-on.

6. “You may revise the introduction, or you may begin the conclusion instead.” A comma and “or” join the independent clauses and express a choice.

7. “The forecast predicted snow, so we brought warm coats.” A comma and “so” connect complete clauses and show a result.

8. “The orchestra was ready; the conductor raised her baton.” A period or comma plus “and” also works.

9. Yes. “But” joins two adjectives, not two independent clauses; no comma is required.

10. “I wanted to volunteer; nevertheless, I had another commitment.” A period before “Nevertheless” also works.

11. Yes. The introductory dependent clause ends with a comma and is followed by an independent clause.

12. “We could meet on Tuesday, or we could meet on Thursday. Either day works.” The final complete thought needs its own valid boundary.

Apply It

Revise all four paragraphs before opening the possible revisions. More than one correct revision is possible.

  1. Revise this paragraph in your notebook. There is more than one correct solution.

    The debate began, everyone listened closely. Our team presented its argument the other team raised a thoughtful objection. We considered the objection, however, we kept our original position.

  2. Repair the punctuation in this paragraph. Keep the meaning, and use at least two different ways to join the complete thoughts.

    The museum opened early we arrived before the crowds. The first gallery was quiet, we took time to examine each painting. We wanted to stay longer, however, our bus was waiting.

  3. Revise the paragraph to repair each fused sentence or comma splice. Keep the sequence of events.

    The rehearsal started late the conductor adjusted the schedule. We practiced the difficult passage, the rhythm became clearer. The final run-through went well, nevertheless, we planned another rehearsal.

  4. Revise the paragraph using at least two different repairs. Explain each boundary you change.

    Our group chose a question we gathered several sources. The sources disagreed, we compared their evidence. We were ready to write, however, one claim still needed support.
Compare with possible revisions

  1. Possible revision:
    The debate began, and everyone listened closely. Our team presented its argument; the other team raised a thoughtful objection. We considered the objection; however, we kept our original position.

    Explanation: The first repair uses a comma and “and.” The second uses a semicolon. The third uses a semicolon before “however” and a comma after it.

  2. Possible revision:
    The museum opened early, and we arrived before the crowds. The first gallery was quiet; we took time to examine each painting. We wanted to stay longer; however, our bus was waiting.

    Explanation: The first repair uses a comma and a coordinating conjunction. The next two use semicolons between independent clauses. A period can replace either semicolon.

  3. Possible revision:
    The rehearsal started late, so the conductor adjusted the schedule. We practiced the difficult passage, and the rhythm became clearer. The final run-through went well; nevertheless, we planned another rehearsal.

    Explanation: The first two boundaries use a comma and a coordinating conjunction. The third uses a semicolon before “nevertheless” and a comma after it. Other appropriate boundaries can work.

  4. Possible revision:
    Our group chose a question. We gathered several sources. The sources disagreed, so we compared their evidence. We were ready to write; however, one claim still needed support.

    Explanation: The period separates the first two complete thoughts. A comma with “so” shows a result in the next sentence. A semicolon correctly introduces the independent clause connected by “however.”

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Repair this sentence two different ways: “The rain stopped, the players returned to the field.”

  2. Repair “The team practiced every afternoon, its confidence grew” in two ways: once with a semicolon and once with a subordinating conjunction.

  3. Revise “The instructions seemed simple, we misunderstood the last step” using “although.”

  4. Repair “The class gathered evidence it organized the material, then it drafted a response” without losing the sequence.

Check final answers

  1. “The rain stopped. The players returned to the field.”
    “The rain stopped, so the players returned to the field.”
    A semicolon also works. If you used a comma alone, review the four repairs above.

  2. “The team practiced every afternoon; its confidence grew.” One complex version is “As the team practiced every afternoon, its confidence grew.” Both repairs give the clauses a valid connection.

  3. “Although the instructions seemed simple, we misunderstood the last step.” Subordination expresses the contrast and avoids a comma splice.

  4. “The class gathered evidence and organized the material. Then it drafted a response.” The first sentence shares a subject; the second begins a new complete thought. Other valid boundaries can work.

Take it into your writing: Find one long sentence in your next draft. Identify each complete thought and check how the thoughts are joined.

Back to skills

Module 11 · About 25 minutes

Essential Commas

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Your goal: Use commas to show how the parts of a sentence fit together.

  • After an introductory dependent clause: “When class ended, we went to lunch.”
  • Between independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction: “I revised the essay, and my argument became clearer.”
  • Between items in a series: “Bring a notebook, a pencil, and your book.” Follow your teacher’s preference for the final serial comma.
  • Around nonessential information: “Our librarian, who recommended the novel, led the discussion.” Use both commas when the extra information appears in the middle.

Do not put a comma between a subject and its verb. Essential identifying information does not take enclosing commas: “Students who finished may leave.” Here, “who finished” identifies which students.

Practice

  1. After the concert ended we thanked the musicians.
  2. The students in the front row, asked questions.
  3. I read the chapter but I still had questions.
  4. Add commas as needed: “Before the rehearsal began the singers arranged their music.”
  5. Punctuate for direct address: “Thank you Elena for your thoughtful question.”
  6. Add commas as needed: “We packed notebooks pencils and rulers but we forgot the map.”
  7. Punctuate: “If the weather improves we will eat outside.”
  8. Punctuate direct address: “Marcus would you read the next sentence?”
  9. Remove any unnecessary comma: “The student with the red folder, volunteered.”
  10. Punctuate: “We wanted to stay yet the museum was closing.”
  11. Add commas for nonessential information: “The auditorium which was renovated last year seats three hundred people.” Assume one already identified auditorium.
  12. Is a comma needed? “The students opened their books and began reading.” Explain.
Check answers

1. “After the concert ended, we thanked the musicians.” Add a comma after the introductory clause.

2. “The students in the front row asked questions.” Remove the comma separating the subject from its verb.

3. “I read the chapter, but I still had questions.” Both sides of “but” are independent clauses.

4. “Before the rehearsal began, the singers arranged their music.” A comma follows the introductory dependent clause.

5. “Thank you, Elena, for your thoughtful question.” Commas set off the name of the person being addressed.

6. “We packed notebooks, pencils, and rulers, but we forgot the map.” Commas separate the series; the comma before “but” joins two independent clauses. Follow your teacher’s serial-comma preference.

7. “If the weather improves, we will eat outside.” A comma follows the introductory dependent clause.

8. “Marcus, would you read the next sentence?” Set off the name of the person addressed.

9. “The student with the red folder volunteered.” Do not separate the subject from its verb.

10. “We wanted to stay, yet the museum was closing.” A comma precedes the coordinating conjunction between independent clauses.

11. “The auditorium, which was renovated last year, seats three hundred people.” Both commas enclose the added information.

12. No comma is needed before “and.” The two verb phrases share the subject “students.”

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Write a sentence beginning with “Although” and another joining two complete thoughts with “but.” Explain each comma.

  2. Write and punctuate a sentence with nonessential information in the middle. Explain why both commas are needed.

  3. Punctuate “When the guests arrived Elena welcomed them and Marcus collected their coats.”

  4. Write a sentence directly addressing a classmate and containing a list of three supplies. Punctuate it.

Check final answers

  1. Examples: “Although the task was difficult, we finished it.” The comma follows the introductory dependent clause. “I checked the evidence, but I still had questions.” The comma and “but” join two independent clauses.

  2. One example: “Our principal, who introduced the speaker, welcomed the audience.” The person is already identified; the added clause is enclosed by two commas. Your answer may use different content.

  3. “When the guests arrived, Elena welcomed them, and Marcus collected their coats.” The first comma ends the introductory clause; the second joins two independent clauses with “and.”

  4. Example: “Elena, please bring paper, pencils, and a ruler.” The first comma marks direct address; the others separate list items. Follow your teacher’s serial-comma preference.

Back to skills

Module 12 · About 20–25 minutes

Essential & Nonessential Information

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Your goal: Decide whether a description identifies a noun or adds extra information about it.

Essential information restricts or identifies which person or thing you mean. Do not enclose it in commas. Nonessential information adds a comment about something already identified. Enclose it in commas when it interrupts the sentence.

Essential: Students who finished the quiz may leave.
Only the students who finished may leave.
Nonessential: The students, who finished the quiz, may leave.
The writer treats the whole identified group as having finished.

The question is not just whether the sentence remains grammatical if you remove the words. Ask whether the removal changes who or what the sentence identifies. Nonessential does not mean unimportant.

An appositive renames a noun. “Our principal, Dr. Lee, spoke” uses commas when “our principal” already identifies the person. “The poet Emily Dickinson” uses the name to identify which poet.

Practice

  1. Only red-covered books belong on this shelf: “Books with red covers belong here.” Add commas if needed.
  2. Add commas: “Our school librarian Ms. Ortiz recommended the book.” Assume the school has one librarian.
  3. Explain the meaning: “The players, who arrived early, warmed up.”
  4. Only the notebooks on the front table are ready to collect. Punctuate: “The notebooks on the front table are ready to collect.”
  5. Assume “my bicycle” already identifies one specific bicycle. Punctuate: “My bicycle which has a flat tire is in the garage.”
  6. Explain the difference: “The students who volunteered received badges” and “The students, who volunteered, received badges.”
  7. Only students wearing badges may enter. Add commas if needed: “Students wearing badges may enter.”
  8. Assume “our library” already identifies one library. Punctuate: “Our library which opens at eight has a new collection.”
  9. Explain: “The books that have blue labels belong upstairs.”
  10. Explain: “The books, which have blue labels, belong upstairs.”
  11. Assume the school has one principal. Punctuate: “Our principal Dr. Chen welcomed the visitors.”
  12. Does “nonessential” mean the information is unimportant? Explain.
Check answers and explanations

1. No commas. “With red covers” identifies which books.
2. “Our school librarian, Ms. Ortiz, recommended the book.” The name adds information about the already identified librarian.
3. The identified group of players arrived early. The clause adds a comment about the whole group.

4. No commas are needed. “On the front table” identifies which notebooks.

5. “My bicycle, which has a flat tire, is in the garage.” The clause adds information about an already identified bicycle, so use enclosing commas.

6. The first identifies the subset of students who volunteered. The second treats volunteering as an added fact about the whole identified group of students.

7. No commas. “Wearing badges” identifies the students who may enter.

8. “Our library, which opens at eight, has a new collection.” The added clause takes two enclosing commas.

9. The clause identifies a subset: only the blue-labeled books are being located upstairs. It is essential and takes no enclosing commas.

10. The sentence treats the identified books as a group and adds that they have blue labels. The added clause is nonessential.

11. “Our principal, Dr. Chen, welcomed the visitors.” The name adds information about the already identified person.

12. No. It means the information is not needed to identify the noun in this context. It may still be interesting or important.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Write a sentence saying that only essays with citations will be accepted.

  2. Write two sentences using “who arrived early”: one referring only to the early-arriving singers and one adding that all the identified singers arrived early.

  3. Write a sentence identifying only the athletes who completed training. Then write one adding that all the identified athletes completed training.

  4. Punctuate “The portrait which hangs beside the entrance was restored.” Explain two possible versions based on context.

Check final answers

  1. “Essays that include citations will be accepted.” The identifying clause takes no enclosing commas.

  2. “The singers who arrived early practiced together.” This identifies a subset. “The singers, who arrived early, practiced together.” This adds information about the whole identified group. Commas change the intended reference.

  3. “The athletes who completed training joined the match.” This identifies a subset. “The athletes, who completed training, joined the match.” This adds a fact about the whole identified group.

  4. If the clause identifies which portrait: “The portrait which hangs beside the entrance was restored.” If the portrait is already identified: “The portrait, which hangs beside the entrance, was restored.” The intended reference determines the commas.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

Back to skills

Module 13 · About 20–25 minutes

Colons & Semicolons

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Your goal: Choose a colon or semicolon based on the structure and relationship of your ideas.

A semicolon can join closely related independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction. Both sides must be complete sentences. It can also separate complicated list items that contain commas.

A colon can introduce a list, explanation, or example after a complete introductory clause. Do not insert it between a verb and its object or a preposition and its object.

Semicolon: The evidence was strong; the conclusion was convincing.
Colon: Bring three supplies: a notebook, a pencil, and a ruler.
No colon: The supplies are a notebook, a pencil, and a ruler.

With a connecting adverb, write “The evidence was strong; however, the conclusion was weak.” “However” alone cannot join clauses with a comma.

Practice

  1. Choose: “We had one goal ( : / ; ) to finish the draft.”
  2. Choose: “The draft was finished ( : / ; ) revision would begin tomorrow.”
  3. Remove the unnecessary punctuation: “Our goals include: accuracy, clarity, and fairness.”
  4. Punctuate: “The speaker made one request listen carefully.”
  5. Repair: “We were prepared, nevertheless, we felt nervous.”
  6. Remove any unnecessary punctuation: “The discussion focused on: justice, courage, and friendship.”
  7. Punctuate: “The experiment failed we checked our measurements.”
  8. Punctuate: “We needed two things patience and a clear plan.”
  9. Remove unnecessary punctuation: “My favorite subjects are: history and music.”
  10. Repair: “The audience waited; until the doors opened.”
  11. Punctuate: “The deadline was close therefore we worked carefully.”
  12. Punctuate three complex list items: “We invited Chen, the historian, Rivera, the poet, and Patel, the scientist.”
Check answers and explanations

1. Colon: A complete introductory clause leads to an explanation of the goal.
2. Semicolon: Two related independent clauses are joined.
3. “Our goals include accuracy, clarity, and fairness.” The colon would separate “include” from its objects.

4. “The speaker made one request: listen carefully.” A complete introductory clause leads to an explanation of the request.

5. “We were prepared; nevertheless, we felt nervous.” A semicolon joins two independent clauses, and a comma follows the connecting adverb. A period before “Nevertheless” also works.

6. “The discussion focused on justice, courage, and friendship.” Do not place a colon between the preposition “on” and its objects.

7. “The experiment failed; we checked our measurements.” Both parts are independent clauses. A period also works.

8. “We needed two things: patience and a clear plan.” A complete introduction leads to the explanation.

9. “My favorite subjects are history and music.” Do not put a colon between the linking verb and its complement.

10. “The audience waited until the doors opened.” The “until” clause is dependent, so a semicolon is inappropriate.

11. “The deadline was close; therefore, we worked carefully.” The semicolon joins independent clauses, and a comma follows “therefore.”

12. “We invited Chen, the historian; Rivera, the poet; and Patel, the scientist.” Semicolons clarify the boundaries of items containing commas.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Repair “The library was quiet; because everyone was reading.”

  2. Punctuate the list so its three items are clear: “We studied Athens, Greece, Rome, Italy, and Paris, France.”

  3. Write a sentence introducing three items with a colon. Explain why the words before the colon can stand alone.

  4. Join “The instructions were clear” and “the task still required patience” with “however” and appropriate punctuation.

Check final answers

  1. “The library was quiet because everyone was reading.” The “because” clause is dependent, so a semicolon cannot join it to the main clause.

  2. “We studied Athens, Greece; Rome, Italy; and Paris, France.” Semicolons separate the three city–country pairs, each of which contains a comma.

  3. Example: “The class chose three values: courage, honesty, and patience.” “The class chose three values” is a complete independent clause.

  4. “The instructions were clear; however, the task still required patience.” A period before “However” also works; a comma alone does not.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

Back to skills

Module 14 · About 20–25 minutes

Misplaced & Dangling Modifiers

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Your goal: Make the relationship between a description and its subject clear.

A misplaced modifier sits where it seems to describe the wrong thing. A dangling modifier has no appropriate word to describe in the main clause. After an introductory phrase describing an action, the main clause should normally name the person or thing doing it.

Dangling: Walking to school, the rain soaked me.
Clear: Walking to school, I was soaked by the rain.
Misplaced: We saw a painting in the museum with a cracked frame.
Clear: In the museum, we saw a painting with a cracked frame.

Words such as “only” can change meaning when moved: “Only Nora revised the essay” means nobody else revised it. “Nora revised only the introduction” limits what she revised.

Practice

  1. Repair: “After reading the poem, the symbolism became clear.”
  2. Repair: “The student handed the essay to the teacher with several spelling errors.”
  3. Place “only” to mean that exactly Nora, and no other person, won: “Nora won the prize.”
  4. Repair: “To finish the essay, the library stayed open late.”
  5. Move the description to clarify: “We watched the birds through the window with bright red feathers.”
  6. Place “only” to mean that the introduction was the sole part revised: “Lena revised the introduction.”
  7. Repair: “While studying for the quiz, the power went out.”
  8. Clarify: “The teacher returned the essays to the students covered in comments.” Assume the essays have comments.
  9. Place “only” to mean no one except the librarian found the key: “The librarian found the key.”
  10. Place “only” to mean the key was the sole thing found: “The librarian found the key.”
  11. Repair: “To reach the station on time, the alarm rang at six.”
  12. Clarify: “We found a notebook in the classroom with a torn cover.”
Check answers and explanations

1. “After reading the poem, I understood the symbolism.” The reader is now named as the subject.
2. “The student handed the essay with several spelling errors to the teacher.” The phrase clearly describes the essay.
3. “Only Nora won the prize.” “Only” directly limits “Nora.”

4. “To finish the essay, I worked in the library until it closed.” The subject of the main clause now names the person trying to finish.

5. “Through the window, we watched the birds with bright red feathers.” The feather description now attaches clearly to “birds.”

6. “Lena revised only the introduction.” “Only” immediately precedes the part whose scope it limits.

7. “While I was studying for the quiz, the power went out.” The introductory clause names the person studying.

8. “The teacher returned the comment-covered essays to the students.” The modifier now clearly describes “essays.”

9. “Only the librarian found the key.” The modifier limits the person.

10. “The librarian found only the key.” The modifier limits the object.

11. “To reach the station on time, I set my alarm for six.” The main clause names the person with that purpose.

12. “In the classroom, we found a notebook with a torn cover.” The cover description is next to “notebook.”

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Repair “Running down the hall, my notebook fell open.”

  2. Repair “Covered in handwritten comments, I returned the essay to my folder,” assuming the essay is covered in comments.

  3. Repair “Exhausted after the rehearsal, the bus ride felt long,” assuming the musicians are exhausted.

  4. Write two versions of “Nora borrowed the atlas” using “only” to express two different meanings. Explain them.

Check final answers

  1. “As I ran down the hall, my notebook fell open.” The introductory clause now names who was running.

  2. “I returned the essay, which was covered in handwritten comments, to my folder.” The revision clearly attaches the description to the essay. Another option is “I returned the essay covered in handwritten comments to my folder.”

  3. “Exhausted after the rehearsal, the musicians found the bus ride long.” The introductory description now modifies the main-clause subject.

  4. “Only Nora borrowed the atlas” excludes other borrowers. “Nora borrowed only the atlas” excludes other borrowed items. Position changes what “only” limits.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

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Module 15 · About 20–25 minutes

Parallel Structure

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Your goal: Keep the form of words and phrases consistent in lists and paired ideas.

When ideas have equal roles in a sentence, express them in matching forms. A list of activities might use three -ing forms or three infinitive phrases. Either pattern works; avoid an accidental mixture.

Uneven: She enjoys reading, writing, and to debate.
Parallel: She enjoys reading, writing, and debating.
Parallel: Her goals are to read, to write, and to debate.

Check both sides of paired constructions such as “both…and” and “not only…but also.” Compare nouns with nouns, phrases with matching phrases, and clauses with clauses.

Practice

  1. Repair: “The course teaches students to read closely, writing clearly, and to speak confidently.”
  2. Repair: “The argument was thoughtful, clear, and persuaded us.”
  3. Is this parallel? “We can work in the library or in the classroom.”
  4. Repair: “The speech was both informative and it inspired us.”
  5. Repair: “We plan to research the topic, draft an outline, and revising the essay.”
  6. Is this parallel? “The assignment asks what the character wants and why the character hesitates.” Explain.
  7. Repair: “The student was curious, patient, and showed courage.”
  8. Repair: “We practiced outlining, revising, and how to proofread.”
  9. Repair: “The plan is to read the source, to take notes, and a summary.”
  10. Is this parallel? “The coach asked us to listen carefully and to respond respectfully.”
  11. Repair: “The workshop develops both confidence and helps with accuracy.”
  12. Repair: “The essay explains what happened, why it happened, and the consequences.”
Check answers and explanations

1. “The course teaches students to read closely, to write clearly, and to speak confidently.” All three items are infinitive phrases.
2. “The argument was thoughtful, clear, and persuasive.” All three items are adjectives.
3. Yes. Both alternatives are prepositional phrases.

4. “The speech was both informative and inspiring.” The paired adjectives match.

5. “We plan to research the topic, draft an outline, and revise the essay.” The verbs “research,” “draft,” and “revise” share “to.” Repeating “to” before each verb also works.

6. Yes. Both items are clauses introduced by question words; they fill equivalent roles in the sentence.

7. “The student was curious, patient, and courageous.” All three descriptions are adjectives.

8. “We practiced outlining, revising, and proofreading.” The three items use matching -ing forms.

9. “The plan is to read the source, to take notes, and to write a summary.” The three infinitive phrases match.

10. Yes. Both coordinated items are infinitive phrases with adverbs.

11. “The workshop develops both confidence and accuracy.” Both items after “both…and” are nouns.

12. “The essay explains what happened, why it happened, and what consequences followed.” The three items now use matching clause structures.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Revise “A good discussion requires listening carefully, thoughtful questions, and responding respectfully.”

  2. Make the list parallel: “A strong paragraph has a clear claim, evidence that is relevant, and explains its reasoning.”

  3. Make this list parallel: “The project involves research, drafting an argument, and to present our conclusions.”

  4. Write a sentence using “not only…but also” to connect two matching grammatical forms. Identify the forms.

Check final answers

  1. “A good discussion requires listening carefully, asking thoughtful questions, and responding respectfully.” All three activities use -ing phrases.

  2. “A strong paragraph has a clear claim, relevant evidence, and an explanation of its reasoning.” All three items are noun phrases. Other consistently structured revisions can work.

  3. “The project involves researching the topic, drafting an argument, and presenting our conclusions.” Each item is an -ing phrase.

  4. Example: “The essay is not only clear but also persuasive.” “Clear” and “persuasive” are matching adjectives. Other parallel pairs can work.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

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Module 16 · About 20–25 minutes

Sentence Variety & Combining

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Your goal: Combine related ideas and vary sentence structure for a clear purpose.

A simple sentence has one independent clause. A compound sentence joins independent clauses. A complex sentence combines an independent clause with at least one dependent clause. All three can be effective; longer does not automatically mean better.

Short sentences: The class read the poem. The class discussed its imagery.
Shared subject: The class read the poem and discussed its imagery.
Time relationship: After reading the poem, the class discussed its imagery.

Choose a connection that matches the meaning. “Because” signals a reason; “although” signals contrast; “when” signals time. Do not invent a causal relationship just to combine sentences. Keep a short sentence when you want emphasis.

Practice

  1. Combine without repeating the subject: “Nora gathered evidence. Nora organized her notes.”
  2. Use “although”: “The argument was persuasive. It needed stronger evidence.”
  3. Combine to show time: “The bell rang. Then the students left.”
  4. Combine with one shared subject: “Marcus reread the passage. Marcus underlined the key claim.”
  5. Combine using “although”: “The problem was difficult. The class solved it.”
  6. Combine using “when”: “The speaker finished. The audience applauded.”
  7. Combine with a shared subject: “The librarian found the source. The librarian showed us the passage.”
  8. Combine using “although”: “The passage was brief. It raised a difficult question.”
  9. Combine to show time: “The rehearsal ended. The musicians packed their instruments.”
  10. Make a compound sentence: “The evidence was persuasive. The conclusion was clear.”
  11. Combine using an appositive: “Elena is our team captain. Elena led the discussion.”
  12. Should you use “because” to combine two observations if you do not know whether one caused the other? Explain.
Compare with possible answers

1. “Nora gathered evidence and organized her notes.” A shared subject needs no comma between these verb phrases.
2. “Although the argument was persuasive, it needed stronger evidence.” The introductory dependent clause takes a comma.
3. “After the bell rang, the students left.” The relationship is sequence, not necessarily cause.

4. “Marcus reread the passage and underlined the key claim.” No comma is needed between the two verb phrases sharing “Marcus.”

5. “Although the problem was difficult, the class solved it.” The introductory dependent clause ends with a comma.

6. “When the speaker finished, the audience applauded.” “When” shows a time relationship, and a comma follows the introductory clause.

7. “The librarian found the source and showed us the passage.” Both verb phrases share one subject.

8. “Although the passage was brief, it raised a difficult question.” The conjunction expresses contrast.

9. “After the rehearsal ended, the musicians packed their instruments.” The connection shows sequence.

10. “The evidence was persuasive, and the conclusion was clear.” A comma and coordinating conjunction join independent clauses.

11. “Elena, our team captain, led the discussion.” The appositive renames Elena and is enclosed in commas.

12. No. “Because” asserts a reason. Choose a connection that accurately reflects the relationship you can support.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Revise in two ways: “The room was quiet. The students were reading.” Make one compound sentence and one complex sentence.

  2. Rewrite “The evidence was incomplete. The committee postponed its decision” as both a compound sentence and a complex sentence. Choose connections that fit the meaning.

  3. Combine “The class considered the objection” and “The class kept its original conclusion” in two ways, one showing contrast and one simply joining the actions.

  4. Rewrite “The door opened. A visitor entered. The class became quiet” as two varied sentences without inventing a reason for the silence.

Check final answers

  1. Compound: “The room was quiet, and the students were reading.”
    Complex: “While the students were reading, the room was quiet.” Both preserve the basic observations without asserting that one caused the other.

  2. Compound: “The evidence was incomplete, and the committee postponed its decision.” Complex: “Because the evidence was incomplete, the committee postponed its decision.” The second asserts a reason; use it only if that causal relationship is intended.

  3. Contrast: “Although the class considered the objection, it kept its original conclusion.” Shared subject: “The class considered the objection and kept its original conclusion.” The first emphasizes contrast more strongly.

  4. One version: “When the door opened, a visitor entered. The class became quiet.” A complex sentence is followed by a short simple sentence; the revision does not claim the visitor caused the silence.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

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Module 17 · About 20–25 minutes

Quotation Punctuation

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Your goal: Introduce short quotations smoothly and place punctuation correctly in American English.

A reporting phrase often introduces a quotation with a comma: “Mara said, ‘We should begin.’” A complete introductory sentence can take a colon. A quotation woven into your sentence may need no introductory punctuation.

Reporting phrase: Mara said, “We should begin.”
Complete introduction: Mara made a simple request: “Begin.”
Integrated phrase: Mara described the task as “a welcome challenge.”

In American usage, commas and periods normally go inside closing quotation marks. Colons and semicolons go outside. A question mark goes inside if the quoted words ask the question, and outside if your whole sentence asks the question.

For an MLA short quotation with a parenthetical citation, put the closing quotation mark before the citation and the final sentence period after it. Block quotations follow different rules.

Practice

  1. Add punctuation: Mara said “We should begin”
  2. Place the question mark: Did Mara really say “Begin now”
  3. Place the question mark: Mara asked, “Are we ready”
  4. Punctuate in American English: Elena said “The answer is clear”
  5. Place the question mark: Why did Elena describe the task as “a welcome challenge”
  6. Punctuate the invented MLA example: Rivera calls the setting “a silent refuge” (27)
  7. Punctuate: The teacher asked “Have you checked your sources”
  8. Punctuate in American English: “That is correct” Elena replied
  9. Place the question mark: Did the narrator call the garden “a refuge”
  10. Choose comma or colon: The speaker offered one suggestion “Read the passage again.”
  11. Does this integrated phrase need a comma before the quotation? The speaker described the decision as “unwise.”
  12. Punctuate the invented MLA example: The narrator describes the hall as “cold and empty” (Chen 14)
Check answers and explanations

1. Mara said, “We should begin.” The reporting phrase takes a comma; the period goes inside.
2. Did Mara really say “Begin now”? The surrounding sentence asks the question.
3. Mara asked, “Are we ready?” The quoted words ask the question.

4. Elena said, “The answer is clear.” A reporting phrase takes a comma; the period goes inside the closing quotation mark.

5. Why did Elena describe the task as “a welcome challenge”? The whole sentence asks the question; the quoted phrase does not.

6. Rivera calls the setting “a silent refuge” (27). The closing quotation mark precedes the parenthetical, and the sentence’s period follows it. The words and source are invented for practice.

7. The teacher asked, “Have you checked your sources?” The reporting phrase takes a comma; the quoted question supplies the question mark.

8. “That is correct,” Elena replied. The comma belongs inside the closing quotation mark, and the attribution continues the sentence.

9. Did the narrator call the garden “a refuge”? The whole sentence asks the question; the quoted phrase does not.

10. The speaker offered one suggestion: “Read the passage again.” A complete introductory clause can lead to a quotation with a colon.

11. No. The quoted word fits directly into the sentence’s grammar after “as.”

12. The narrator describes the hall as “cold and empty” (Chen 14). The final sentence period follows the parenthetical. The source and wording are invented for practice.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Punctuate the invented quotation and MLA citation: The narrator calls the room “quiet and bright” (Rivera 12)

  2. Introduce the invented quotation “We must begin again” after the complete sentence “The captain gave one command.” Use a colon and correct quotation punctuation.

  3. Write a sentence quoting the invented question “Where should we begin?” after the reporting phrase “Elena asked.”

  4. Introduce the invented statement “The evidence changes everything” with a complete introductory clause and a colon.

Check final answers

  1. The narrator calls the room “quiet and bright” (Rivera 12). The sentence period follows the citation. This quotation and source are invented for practice.

  2. The captain gave one command: “We must begin again.” The introduction is a complete independent clause. In American usage, the sentence period goes inside the closing quotation mark.

  3. Elena asked, “Where should we begin?” A comma follows “asked”; the question mark is inside the quotation because the quoted words ask a question.

  4. One answer: The investigator made a striking claim: “The evidence changes everything.” The introduction is independent, and the sentence period is inside the closing quotation mark in American usage.

Take it into your writing: Find a sentence in your current draft where this skill applies. Revise it and explain your choice.

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Module 18 · About 20 minutes

In-text Citations

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Your goal: Make clear which ideas come from a source and help your reader locate that source.

Cite direct quotations and borrowed ideas, including paraphrases. Putting an idea in your own words does not remove the need to credit its source. Use the citation style your teacher assigns. The examples below use a basic MLA author–page pattern.

Illustrative source: A book by Maria Rivera, page 24.
Paraphrase: Repeated practice can help writers notice patterns (Rivera 24).
Author named in the sentence: Rivera explains that repeated practice can help writers notice patterns (24).

These are invented examples for practice, not claims from an actual book. For a short quotation, put the closing quotation mark before the citation and the sentence’s final period after it. The in-text reference must correspond to an entry in Works Cited. Never invent page numbers for an unpaginated source.

Practice

  1. You paraphrase an idea from Rivera’s book on page 31. Do you need a citation?
  2. Your sentence already names Rivera. What belongs in parentheses for an idea on page 31?
  3. Your web source has no page numbers. Should you make one up?
  4. You quote a sentence from page 18 of an invented book by Maria Rivera. Your sentence does not name Rivera. Write the basic MLA parenthetical citation.
  5. You name Rivera in your sentence while paraphrasing page 42. Write the parenthetical citation.
  6. You paraphrase an unpaginated web article by Rivera. Should your MLA citation say “(Rivera 1)” simply because the browser shows one page? Explain.
  7. An invented source is a book by Jonah Chen, page 63. You paraphrase it without naming Chen in your sentence. Supply a basic MLA citation.
  8. Your sentence names Chen and quotes a short phrase from page 70. Supply the parenthetical.
  9. A classmate replaces several words in a source sentence with synonyms but keeps its structure and gives no citation. What needs correction?
  10. You use information from a source listed in Works Cited. Does that list alone tell readers where each borrowed idea appears in your essay? Explain.
  11. You consulted an unpaginated article by Chen. Is “(Chen 0)” an appropriate way to mark the missing page?
  12. Why should the identifying name in an in-text citation match the corresponding Works Cited entry?
Check answers

1. Yes. A paraphrase still borrows an idea: “(Rivera 31).”

2. “(31)” if the author is clearly identified in the sentence.

3. No. Use the identifying information required by your assigned style; do not invent a location.

4. “(Rivera 18).” The parenthetical includes the author and page, with no comma between them. The sentence’s final period normally follows the citation.

5. “(42).” When the author is clearly named in the prose, do not unnecessarily repeat the name in the parenthetical.

6. No. Browser display is not a source page number. If the author is not named in the prose, “(Rivera)” can identify the source when there is no location marker. Do not invent a page number.

7. “(Chen 63).” Use the author’s surname and the real page number, with no comma between them.

8. “(70).” Do not repeat the author when the prose clearly identifies the source.

9. Borrowed ideas still need citation, and a paraphrase should genuinely restate the idea rather than merely swap words. Quote exact wording when appropriate and credit the source.

10. No. In-text references connect particular borrowed ideas to the relevant source entries. Works Cited alone does not identify which passage uses which source.

11. No. Do not invent a page number or use zero as a substitute. For a basic unpaginated source, “(Chen)” may identify it if the prose does not name Chen.

12. The reference is a lookup clue. Matching the identifying information lets readers locate the correct source. Follow the assigned style for works without named authors.

Final Check

Complete all four exercises before opening the answers.

  1. Choose one source from your current assignment. Write a paraphrase, add the appropriate citation, and check that your Works Cited entry matches. Ask your teacher about sources without authors or other special cases.

  2. Using an actual source from your assignment, write a sentence naming its author and quoting a short phrase. Add an appropriate citation and identify the matching Works Cited entry.

  3. Use an actual source to write a quotation and a separate paraphrase of the same idea. Cite both appropriately.

  4. Review one paragraph of your current essay. Identify which sentences contain borrowed ideas and explain where citations belong.

Check final answers

  1. Answers depend on your source. Check that the paraphrase uses your own wording and structure, preserves the source’s meaning, and includes an accurate in-text reference that matches Works Cited. Use a real page or location marker when appropriate.

  2. Answers depend on your source. Check that the quoted words are exact, the author is clearly identified, the location is real if provided, and the in-text reference matches Works Cited. For a basic MLA short quotation with a parenthetical, the final sentence period goes after the citation.

  3. Check that the quotation preserves exact wording with quotation marks, the paraphrase uses your own wording and structure without changing the meaning, and both references point to the matching Works Cited entry. Include a real location marker when appropriate.

  4. Your answer depends on the paragraph. Make the source of each borrowed idea clear; cite quotations and paraphrases. Do not assume that one citation at the paragraph’s end automatically identifies every earlier source. Ask your teacher about ambiguous cases.

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